This timeline of volcanism on Earth includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Quaternary period (from 2.58 Mya to the present). Other volcanic eruptions are also listed.
Some eruptions cooled the global climate—inducing a volcanic winter—depending on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted[1] and the magnitude of the eruption.[2] Before the present Holocene epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. Only some eruptions before the Neogene period (from 23 Mya to 2.58 Mya) are listed. Known large eruptions after the Paleogene period (from 66 Mya to 23 Mya) are listed, especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot, the Santorini caldera, and the Taupo Volcanic Zone.
Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kīlauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: Santorini six times, and Yellowstone hotspot 21 times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, appear often too.
In addition to the events listed below, there are many examples of eruptions in the Holocene on the Kamchatka Peninsula,[3] which are described in a supplemental table by Peter Ward.[4]
Large Quaternary eruptions
Main article: List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions
The Holocene epoch begins 11,700 years BP[5] (10,000 14C years ago).
1000–2000 AD
Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 1991, June 15; VEI6; 6 to 16km3 (1.4 to 3.8cumi) of tephra;[6] an estimated 20,000,000 tonnes (22,000,000 short tons) of SO 2 were emitted[2]
Novarupta, Alaska Peninsula; 1912, June 6; VEI6; 13 to 15km3 (3.1 to 3.6cumi) of lava[7][8][9]
Santa Maria, Guatemala; 1902, October 24; VEI6; 20km3 (4.8cumi) of tephra[10]
Krakatoa, Indonesia; 1883, August 26–27; VEI6; 21km3 (5.0cumi) of tephra[11]
Mount Tambora, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia; 1815, Apr 10; VEI7; 160–213km3 (38–51cumi) of tephra;[12][6] an estimated 200,000,000t (220,000,000 short tons) of SO 2 were emitted, produced the "Year Without a Summer"[13]
1808 mystery eruption, VEI6–7; discovered from ice cores in the 1980s.[14][15][16]
Grímsvötn, Northeastern Iceland; 1783–1785; Laki; 1783–1784; VEI2; 14km3 (3.4cumi) of lava, an estimated 120,000,000t (130,000,000 short tons) of SO 2 were emitted, produced a Volcanic winter, 1783, on the North Hemisphere.[17][18]
1465 mystery eruption "the location of this eruption is uncertain, as it has only been identified from distant ice core records and atmospheric events around the time of King Alfonso II of Naples's wedding; it is believed to have been VEI7 and possibly even larger than Mount Tambora's in 1815.[20][21]
1452/1453 mystery eruption in the New Hebrides arc, Vanuatu; the location of this eruption in the South Pacific is uncertain, as it has been identified from distant ice core records; the only pyroclastic flows are found at Kuwae; 36 to 96km3 (8.6 to 23.0cumi) of tephra; 175,000,000–700,000,000t (193,000,000–772,000,000 short tons) of sulfuric acid[22][23][24]
1280(?) in Quilotoa, Ecuador; VEI6; 21km3 (5.0cumi) of tephra[6]
1257 Samalas eruption, Rinjani volcanic complex, Lombok Island, Indonesia; 40km3 (dense-rock equivalent) of tephra, Arctic and Antarctic Ice cores provide compelling evidence to link the ice core sulfate spike of 1258/1259 A.D. to this volcano.[25][26]
Overview of Common Era
Main article: List of large volcanic eruptions
This is a sortable summary of 27 major eruptions in the last 2000 years with VEI ≥6, implying an average of about 1.3 per century. The count does not include the notable VEI 5 eruptions of Mount St. Helens and Mount Vesuvius. Date uncertainties, tephra volumes, and references are also not included.
Note:
Caldera names tend to change over time. For example, Okataina Caldera, Haroharo Caldera, Haroharo volcanic complex, Tarawera volcanic complex had the same magma source in the Taupo Volcanic Zone. Yellowstone Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, Island Park Caldera, Heise Volcanic Field had all Yellowstone hotspot as magma source.
Earlier Quaternary eruptions
See also: List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions
2.588 ± 0.005 million years BP, the Quaternary period and Pleistocene epoch begin.
Eifel hotspot, Laacher See, Vulkan Eifel, Germany; 12.9ka; VEI6; 6 cubic kilometers (1.4cumi) of tephra.[31][32][33][34]
Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18km), Aleutian Range, 17ka ±5; more than 50km3 (12cumi) of tephra.[4]
Lake Barrine, Atherton Tableland, North Queensland, Australia; was formed over 17ka.
Morne Diablotins, Commonwealth of Dominica; VEI6; 30ka (Grand Savanne Ignimbrite).[35]
Phlegraean Fields, Italy; VEI 7; 40 ka (Campanian Ignimbrite eruption).
Kurile Lake, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; Golygin eruption; about 41.5ka; VEI7[6]
Maninjau Caldera (size: 20 x 8km), West Sumatra; VEI7; around 52ka; 220 to 250 cubic kilometers (52.8 to 60.0cumi) of tephra.[36]
Lake Toba (size: 100 x 30km), Sumatra, Indonesia; VEI8; 73ka ±4; 2,500 to 3,000 cubic kilometers (599.8 to 719.7cumi) of tephra; probably six gigatons of sulfur dioxide were emitted (Youngest Toba Tuff).[2][37][38][39][40]
Atitlán Caldera (size: 17 x 20km), Guatemalan Highlands; Los Chocoyos eruption; formed in an eruption 84ka; VEI7; 300km3 (72cumi) of tephra.[41]
Mount Aso (size: 24km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 90ka; last eruption was more than 600 cubic kilometers (144cumi) of tephra.[4][42]
Sierra la Primavera volcanic complex (size: 11km wide), Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; 95ka; 20 cubic kilometers (5cumi) of Tala Tuff.[4][43]
Mount Aso (size: 24km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 120ka; 80km3 (19cumi) of tephra.[4]
Mount Aso (size: 24km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 140ka; 80km3 (19cumi) of tephra.[4]
Puy de Sancy, Massif Central, central France; it is part of an ancient stratovolcano which has been inactive for about 220,000 years.
Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18km), Aleutian Range, 233ka; more than 50km3 (12cumi) of tephra.[4]
Mount Aso (size: 24km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; caldera formed as a result of four huge caldera eruptions; 270ka; 80 cubic kilometers (19cumi) of tephra.[4]
Uzon-Geyzernaya calderas (size: 9 x 18km), Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 325–175ka[44]20km3 (4.8cumi) of ignimbrite deposits.[45]
Yellowstone hotspot; Yellowstone Caldera (size: 45 x 85km); 640ka; VEI8; more than 1,000 cubic kilometers (240cumi) of tephra (Lava Creek Tuff)[6]
Three Sisters (Oregon), USA; Tumalo volcanic center; with eruptions from 600–700 to 170ka years ago
Uinkaret volcanic field, Arizona, USA; the Colorado River was dammed by lava flows multiple times from 725 to 100ka.[47]
Mono County, California, USA; Long Valley Caldera; 758.9ka ±1.8; VEI7; 600 cubic kilometers (144cumi) of Bishop Tuff.[4][48]
Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA; 1.25Ma; VEI7; around 600 cubic kilometers (144cumi) of the Tshirege Member (Upper Bandelier Tuff) eruption.[4][49][50][51]
Sutter Buttes, Central Valley of California, USA; were formed over 1.5Ma by a now-extinct volcano.
Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA; 1.61Ma; VEI7; over 500 cubic kilometers (120cumi) of the Otowi Member (Lower Bandelier Tuff) eruption.[52]
Ebisutoge-Fukuda tephras, Japan; 1.75Ma; 380 to 490 cubic kilometers (91.2 to 117.6cumi) of tephra.[4]
Yellowstone hotspot; Island Park Caldera (size: 100 x 50km); 2.1Ma; VEI8; 2,450 cubic kilometers (588cumi) of Huckleberry Ridge Tuff.[4][6]
Boring Lava Field, Boring, Oregon, USA; the zone became active at least 2.7Ma, and has been extinct for about 300,000 years.[54]
Norfolk Island, Australia; remnant of a basaltic volcano active around 2.3 to 3Ma.[55]
Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50km), Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex, Bolivia; 2.9Ma; VEI7; more than 820 cubic kilometers (197cumi) of Pastos Grandes Ignimbrite.[56]
Anahim hotspot, British Columbia, Canada; has generated the Anahim Volcanic Belt over the last 13 million years.
Yellowstone hotspot, Owyhee-Humboldt volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon; around 12.8 to 13.9Ma.[66][71]
Tejeda Caldera, Gran Canaria, Spain; 13.9Ma; the 80 km3 eruption produced a composite ignimbrite (P1) of rhyolite, trachyte and basaltic materials, with a thickness of 30 metres at 10km from the caldera center[72]
Gran Canaria shield basalt eruption, Spain; 14.5 to 14Ma; 1,000 km3 of tholeiitic to alkali basalts[73]
Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Calavera Caldera, (size: 17km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.7Ma; 300 cubic kilometers (72cumi) of Double H Tuff.[4][66][74][76]
Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Hoppin Peaks Caldera, 16Ma; Hoppin Peaks Tuff.[77]
Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Pueblo Caldera (size: 20 x 10km), Oregon; 15.8Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (10cumi) of Trout Creek Mountains Tuff.[4][74][77]
Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Washburn Caldera, (size: 30 x 25km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 16.548Ma; 250 cubic kilometers (60cumi) of Oregon Canyon Tuff.[4][74][76]
Yellowstone hotspot (?), Northwest Nevada volcanic field (NWNV), Virgin Valley, High Rock, Hog Ranch, and unnamed calderas; West of Pine Forest Range, Nevada; 15.5 to 16.5Ma.[78]
Yellowstone hotspot, Steens and Columbia River flood basalts, Pueblo, Steens, and Malheur Gorge-region, Pueblo Mountains, Steens Mountain, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, USA; most vigorous eruptions were from 14–17Ma; 180,000 cubic kilometers (43,184cumi) of lava.[4][79][80][81][82][83][84][85]
Mount Lindesay (New South Wales), Australia; is part of the remnants of the Nandewar extinct volcano that ceased activity about 17Ma after 4 million years of activity.
The formation of the Chilcotin Group basalts occurs between 10–6 million years ago.
The formation of the Columbia River Basalt Group occurs between 17 and 6 million years ago.
La Garita Caldera erupts in the Wheeler Geologic Area, Central Colorado volcanic field, Colorado, USA, eruption several VEI 8 events (Possibly as high as a VEI 9), 5,000 cubic kilometers (1,200cumi) of Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a single, major eruption about 27.8 million years ago.[53][87][88]
Unknown source in Ethiopia erupts 29 million years ago with at least 3,000 cubic kilometers (720cumi) of Green Tuff and SAM.[4]
Sam Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.5 million years ago, at least 5,550 cubic kilometers (1,332cumi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites.[89]
Jabal Kura’a Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.6million years ago, at least 3,700 cubic kilometers (888cumi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites.[89]
Canary hotspot is believed to have first appeared about 60 million years ago.
Formation of the Brito-Arctic province begins 61 million years ago
Réunion hotspot, Deccan Traps, India, formed between 60 and 68 million years ago which are thought to have played a role in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.
The Louisville hotspot has produced the Louisville Ridge, it is active for at least 80 million years. It may have originated the Ontong Java Plateau around 120 million years ago.
Hawaii hotspot, Meiji Seamount is the oldest extant seamount in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, with an estimated age of 82 million years.
The Kerguelen Plateau begins forming 110 million years ago.
The Rahjamal Traps form from 117–116 million years ago.
The Ontong Java Plateau forms from 125–120 million years ago
Paraná and Etendeka traps, Brazil, Namibia and Angola form 128 to 138 million years ago. 132 million years ago, a possible supervolcanic eruption occurred, ejecting 8,600 cubic kilometers (2,063cumi).[91]
Formation of the Karoo-Ferrar flood basalts begins 183 million years ago.
The flood basalts of the Central Atlantic magmatic province are thought to have contributed to the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event about 199 million years ago.
The Siberian Traps are thought to have played a significant role in the Permian–Triassic extinction event 252 million years ago.
Formation of the Emeishan Traps began 260 million years ago.
The Late Devonian extinction occurs about 374 million years ago.
The Ordovician–Silurian extinction event occurs between 450 and 440 million years ago.
Scafells, Lake District, England; VEI 8; Ordovician (488.3–443.7 million years ago).
Flat Landing Brook; VEI 8, A Supervolcanic eruption occurred 466 million years ago, as it erupted in one of the largest explosive volcanic eruptions known in Earth's history with a volume of ejecta at around 2,000–12,000 cubic kilometers (480–2,879cumi).
The Phanerozoic eon begins 539 million years ago.[92]
Midcontinent Rift System of North America begins forming 1,000 million years ago.
Mackenzie Large Igneous Province forms 1,270 million years ago.
Mistassini dike swarm and Matachewan dike swarm form 2,500 million years ago.
Approximately 2,500 million years ago, the Proterozoic eon of the Precambrian period begins
About 3,800 million years ago, the Archean eon of the Precambrian period begins
Notes
The Mackenzie Large Igneous Province contains the largest and best-preserved continental flood basalt terrain on Earth.[94] The Mackenzie dike swarm throughout the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province is also the largest dike swarm on Earth, covering an area of 2,700,000km2 (1,000,000sqmi).[95]
The Bachelor (27.4 Ma), San Luis (27–26.8 Ma), and Creede (26 Ma) calderas partially overlap each other and are nested within the large La Garita (27.6 Ma) caldera, forming the central caldera cluster of the San Juan volcanic field, Wheeler Geologic Area, La Garita Wilderness. Creede, Colorado and San Luis Peak (Continental Divide of the Americas) are nearby. North Pass Caldera is northeastern the San Juan Mountains, North Pass. The Platoro volcanic complex lies southeastern of the central caldera cluster. The center of the western San Juan caldera cluster lies just west of Lake City, Colorado.
The Rio Grande rift includes the San Juan volcanic field, the Valles Caldera, the Potrillo volcanic field, and the Socorro-Magdalena magmatic system.[96] The Socorro Magma Body is uplifting the surface at approximately 2mm/year.[97][98]
The southwestern Nevada volcanic field, or Yucca Mountain volcanic field, includes: Stonewall Mountain caldera complex, Black Mountain Caldera, Silent Canyon Caldera, Timber Mountain – Oasis Valley caldera complex, Crater Flat Group, and Yucca Mountain. Towns nearby: Beatty, Mercury, Goldfield.[99] It is aligned as a Crater Flat volcanic field, Réveille Range, Lunar Crater volcanic field, Zone (CFLC).[100] The Marysvale Volcanic Field, southwestern Utah is nearby too.
McDermitt volcanic field, or Orevada rift volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon, nearby are: McDermitt, Trout Creek Mountains, Bilk Creek Mountains, Steens Mountain, Jordan Meadow Mountain (6,816ft), Long Ridge, Trout Creek, and Whitehorse Creek.
Emmons Lake stratovolcano (caldera size: 11 x 18km), Aleutian Range, was formed through six eruptions. Mount Emmons, Mount Hague, and Double Crater are post-caldera cones.[6]
The topography of the Basin and Range Province is a result of crustal extension within this part of the North American Plate (rifting of the North American craton or Laurentia from Western North America; e.g. Gulf of California, Rio Grande rift, Oregon-Idaho graben). The crust here has been stretched up to 100% of its original width.[101] In fact, the crust underneath the Basin and Range, especially under the Great Basin (includes Nevada), is some of the thinnest in the world.
Topographically visible calderas: South part of the McDermitt volcanic field (four overlapping and nested calderas), West of McDermitt; Cochetopa Park Caldera, West of the North Pass; Henry's Fork Caldera; Banks Peninsula, New Zealand (Photo) and Valles Caldera. Newer drawings show McDermitt volcanic field (South), as five overlapping and nested calderas. Hoppin Peaks Caldera is included too.
Kiloannum (ka), is a unit of time equal to one thousand years. Megaannum (Ma), is a unit of time equal to one million years, one can assume that "ago" is implied.
The global dimming through volcanism (ash aerosol and sulfur dioxide) is quite independent of the eruption VEI.[105][106][107] When sulfur dioxide (boiling point at standard state: -10°C) reacts with water vapor, it creates sulfate ions (the precursors to sulfuric acid), which are very reflective; ash aerosol on the other hand absorbs ultraviolet.[108] Global cooling through volcanism is the sum of the influence of the global dimming and the influence of the high albedo of the deposited ash layer.[109] The lower snow line and its higher albedo might prolong this cooling period.[110] Bipolar comparison showed six sulfate events: Tambora (1815), Cosigüina (1835), Krakatoa (1883), Agung (1963), and El Chichón (1982), and the 1808 mystery eruption.[111] And the atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation data from the Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO), Hawaii (19°32'N) detected only five eruptions:[112]
But very large sulfur dioxide emissions overdrive the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. Carbon monoxide's and methane's concentration goes up (greenhouse gases), global temperature goes up, ocean's temperature goes up, and ocean's carbon dioxide solubility goes down.[1]
Location of Mount Pinatubo, showing area over which ash from the 1991 eruption fell.
Satellite measurements of ash and aerosol emissions from Mount Pinatubo.
MLO transmission ratio - Solar radiation reduction due to volcanic eruptions
NASA, Global Dimming - ElChichon, VEI5; Pinatubo, VEI6.
Sulfur dioxide emissions by volcanoes. Mount Pinatubo: 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide.
TOMS sulfur dioxide from the June 15, 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.
Sarychev Peak: the sulphur dioxide cloud generated by the eruption on June 12, 2009 (in Dobson units).
Map gallery
Yellowstone sits on top of four overlapping calderas. (US NPS)
Volcanic arc– Chain of volcanoes formed above a subducting plate
Volcanic Explosivity Index
Volcanic winter– Temperature anomaly event caused by a volcanic eruption
Year Without a Summer– 1816 volcanic winter climate event
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